Socio-religious reform movements of Punjab
The Arya Samaj
Till the end of the first half of the nineteenth century the whole of the Punjab had been brought under British colonial administration. In Punjab, the creative response to colonial rule first emerged among Hindus from the Vaishya community. There were historical reasons for the dominance of this community. Long centuries of Muslim rule in the Punjab had led to the loss of political power among the Kshatriya community and the loss of privileges and patronage to the Brahmin community and consequently to the marginalization of these two communities which in other parts of the country continued to maintain their dominance. Economic power was vested mainly among the Vaishya community. The emergence of the British did not change the economic power vested with the Vaishya communities both in rural and urban areas and this contributed to the latters continued importance as well as dominance within society. Increasing contact with British administration and institutions saw a growing tendency among this new (anglicized) class to question existing societal values sand the status quo.
Dayanand Saraswati founded The Arya Samaj in 1875, which loomed large on the intellectual and social scene of the late nineteenth century North India. The Punjab Arya Samaj was founded in 1877. The Arya Samaj quickly spread roots in Punjab. The principles of the Arya Samaj, ten in number, were written down and this ten point credo became the doctrinal basis for the Arya Samaj Movement. While the Arya Samaj established in Lahore which had emerged as the urban intellectual centre in the Punjab provided the leadership and served as the model, the organizational network of Arya Samajes had a great deal of autonomy.
The Arya Samaj began as a body to propagate the teachings of Dayanand and to carry out reforms both in the religious as well as social sphere. As part of their efforts at reform they advocated doing away with useless ceremonies and rituals, simplifying the necessary rituals omitting the traditional need for priests, promoted the cause of female emancipation and running of orphanages. They attempted to change or adapt local customs, festivals to Arya Samaj precepts. New ceremonies were introduced ostensibly in the Vedic pattern. After initial opposition from Hindu orthodoxy, these were gradually accepted without much protest. They pioneered the cause of education, especially that in English, setting up many schools, their efforts finally culminating in the establishment of the Dayanand Anglo -Vedic College at Lahore which became the breeding ground of Punjabi Hindu intellectuals in the coming years. In their encouragement to the cause of education they rivaled the efforts the of the Christian missionaries.
Nirankari movement
Nirankari, religious reform movement within Sikhism. The Nirankari movement was founded by Dayal Das, who belonged to a half-Sikh, half-Hindu community in Peshawar. He believed that God is formless, or nirankar (hence the name Nirankari). He also stressed the importance of meditation.
The movement expanded in northwest Punjab, Dayal Das’s native region, under the leadership of his successors Darbara Singh (1855–70) and Ratta Ji (1870–1909). Unlike mainstream Sikhs, but like other groups closely related to them such as the Namdharis, Nirankaris accept the authority of a living guru (spiritual guide) and recognized Dayal Das and his successors as gurus. Its members differ from other Sikhs in their disapproval of the militant brotherhood of the Khalsa. The chief contribution of the Nirankari movement is its standardization of rituals connected with birth, marriage, and death based on the Sikh scriptures. Its following is drawn primarily from among the urban trading communities. The sect has its headquarters at Chandigarh.
Namdhari movement
Namdhari, also called Kuka, an austere sect within Sikhism, a religion of India. The Namdhari movement was founded by Balak Singh (1797–1862), who did not believe in any religious ritual other than the repetition of God’s name (or nam, for which reason members of the sect are called Namdharis). His successor, Ram Singh (1816–85), introduced the sect’s distinctive style of wearing the turban (bound straight across the forehead rather than at an angle), of dressing only in clothing made from white handwoven cloth, and of frenzied chanting of hymns culminating in shrieks. Under Ram Singh’s leadership, the Namdharis sought a resurgence of Sikh rule in the Punjab. In January 1872, British police apprehended and executed by cannon about 65 Namdharis. Ram Singh was exiled to Rangoon, Burma.
Namdharis stress their identity as members of the Khalsa (the order of initiated Sikhs) but differ from the mainstream Sikh community in their equal regard for the Adi Granth (“First Volume”), the sacred scripture of Sikhism, and the Dasam Granth (“Tenth Book”), a work compiled by the followers of the 10th Guru, Gobind Singh. They are also distinguished by their belief that the lineage of the living Gurus continued after Gobind Singh. The Namdharis maintain their own gurdwaras (houses of worship) and practice strict vegetarianism. They do not marry outside the sect, and they use fire in their marriage rituals.
Singh sabha movement
Singh Sabha is 19th-century movement within Sikhism that began as a defense against the proselytizing activities of Christians and Hindus. Its chief aims were the revival of the teachings of the Sikh Gurus (spiritual leaders), the production of religious literature in Punjabi, and a campaign against illiteracy.
After the annexation of the Khalsa Raj (the independent Sikh kingdom in the Punjab founded by Ranjit Singh in 1799) by the British in 1849, Christian missionaries increased their activities in central Punjab. Dalip Singh, the last Sikh ruler, converted to Christianity in 1853, and Harnam Singh, a Sikh aristocrat from Kapurthala, followed soon thereafter. Christian missionary activity was thus quickly perceived as a threat to local religious traditions, but it was not the only challenge facing the Sikhs. The lower rung of the British administration in the Punjab included English-speaking Bengalis, who were largely Brahmo Samajis (members of a Hindu reform movement). They actively established their branches in several Punjab cities in the 1860s. Punjabi Muslims concerned with saving their heritage formed the first Anjuman-i-Islamia (an association created to improve religious, educational, and social conditions in the Muslim community) in Lahore in 1869.
In response to these developments, Sikhs initiated the Singh Sabha movement, which sought to revive Sikh doctrine in its pristine purity. The first unit, formed in Amritsar in 1873, was followed by a more radical branch in Lahore that, among other things, stressed that Sikhs were not Hindus. By the end of the 19th century, the number of Singh Sabhas exceeded 100.
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